The Issues
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Short Cuts - Social Mobility - Gangs- Drugs- Gender

Social Mobility

USA

Leonard Beeghley asks this question: “Given barriers to residential mobility how are people to adapt to living in an impoverished and harsh environment characterized by wide spread crime and violence where the very real threat of assault and death is felt on a daily basis?. Such neighbourhoods resemble war zones.” (Beeghley, 2003, p138). Areas (often highly populated by ethnic minorities) where there are few educational or economic opportunities cause strong feelings of anomie and exclusion from society for those who live there. “Hence people must adapt and they do so in a variety of ways. A few commit homicide usually with guns, and often in the context of illegal drugs markets’’ (Beeghley, 2003, p136). Although there is a growing black middle class in America there is still a lot of segregation between ethnic minorities, black people in particular tend to live in impoverished areas where there is little chance of social mobility. “The average black household income is 63 per cent that of whites. Blacks are twice as likely as whites to be unemployed, three times more likely to be on welfare and four times more likely to be in prison. Black teenage males are six times more likely to be murdered than their white counterparts” (Walker, 1995, p25). Click here for more on the issues surrounding race and ethnicity.

"Fight or become a victim: This is the basic lesson of the streets that every African American child growing up in a segregated neighbourhood must learn" (Beeghley, 2003, p130). The children learn to follow the code of the street and become hardened to street violence they learn to earn respect through masculinity. An example of what happens if you do not respect the code is:

Nov 17th 2005 a teenager who was profiled in people magazine for being an ‘outstanding single father’ was shot dead in front of his home. Terrell Pough, 18, got up each day at 6.20am, took Diamond, his two-year-old daughter, to day care, went to school, then worked a six-hour shift as a restaurant manager before returning to his home in Philadelphia at midnight. The national attention that he received for his lifestyle may have contributed to his brutal murder in the tough neighbourhood from which he was desperate to escape.

He had been a member of the Males Achieving Responsibility Successfully programme for teenage fathers and there had been a piece on him in people magazine. Before having his daughter he was a tough street kid, raised by his grandparents who didn’t know his own father. He himself was embarrassed about the coverage he was getting just for doing his job as a father. He was given money to pay rent, a car and offered two jobs after the story ran. It seems that the people in his neighbourhood felt that he was disrespecting their way of life by trying to get out and perhaps were jealous of his attempts to better his life. Mr Pough had finished his shift at the New Orleans Chicken restaurant and was on his way to pick up his daughter when he was killed and his car stolen.

He was the fifth high school student to have been shot dead in two weeks, and the 337th murder in Washington in 2005 (Charter, 2005). Police said that he had been shot in the back of the head in front of his home late on the Thursday night. He died 40 minutes later in hospital. Yesterday Richard Pough, his uncle, said: "Kids have no respect for life these days. They have been programmed. Its all about guns and violence." (Charter, 2005)

UK

Segregation does exist in the UK but does not happen to the same degree as in America. However Peter Gould (2002) says that a recent study called ‘policing for London’ found that London has actually become more polarised between rich and poor and is now more diverse. Scotland yards figures show that there is a serious problem with firearms in certain parts of London. At least ten London boroughs now actually have a gun crime problem (Gould, 2002).

British crime Survey (BCS) 2004/05 also shows how a lack of social mobility has led to an increase in violent crime: 2004/05 BCS found people living in hard pressed areas were at highest risk of being victims of violent crime (5.1%). While people living in wealthy achiever areas were at least risk (2.3%). 2004/05 BCS found violent crime ranged from 655 offences per 10,000 adults in the West Midlands to 474 offences per 10,000 adults in the North East of England, London was in the middle with 556 offences per 10,000 adults 2004/05 BCS found that unemployed people experienced the most amount of violent crime (11.7%)

Gangs

In the USA it seems that gangs are more widespread than in England as a result most of the studies into gangs are on the USA. In the USA in 1995 Decker & Pennell found that among arrestees there is a connection between gun possession and gang membership (Cited in Bennett, & Holloway, 2004 p247). This connection can be made in both the USA and the UK, in particular black gangs from poor neighbourhoods. These neighbourhoods as I have discussed above offer few opportunities and gangs offer young people an identity, a sense of belonging and protection.

USA

In 1955 Albert Cohen argued gangs/ delinquent subcultures are a coping mechanism for dealing with:
A). Status deprivation in mainstream society
B). A negative self evaluation/ image.

On the streets there is a code of conduct different from middle class values. The norms dictate that males in particular must be assertive and show willing to defend themselves – this often leads to carrying a gun. The Bureau of Justice victimisation survey 1993 -2001 found that 35% of gun violence in the USA happens on the street and 25% near the victim’s home (Bureau of Justice Statistics, 2006). Survival of a gang requires them to use force against other gangs who threaten their territory.

Since the arrival of drugs and big money on the streets this has led to more and more gang members carrying guns. "Gangs then, become a collective engine of violence in racially segregated impoverished neighbourhoods'' (Beeghley, 2003, p135). LA is one of the most violent cities in the USA and is rife with gang rivalry over the drug trade (Heaton, 2003).

On the 9th of October 2004 just after midnight Danielle Beccan age 14 was shot in the stomach in a drive by shooting as she walked home from a fairground with friends through the St Ann’s area of Nottingham, an area disputed by rival gangs. She was only yards from her house and died on the pavement in her mother’s arms. The two men who killed her were Mark Kelly age 20 and Junior Andrews 24 who were prominent members of Nottingham’s waterfront gang and from a rival estate. There was no motive for killing Danielle other than she was from St Ann’s and they hated people from St Ann’s. Danielle was simply in the wrong place at the wrong time.

August 8th 2005 Mr Striland 55 and his wife 51 were shot dead in the early hours “….victims of a calculated, ruthless and merciless gangland killing carried out in revenge for a murder their son had committed a year earlier” (Laville, 2006)

Drugs

In the USA and in the UK it is illegal to possess or sell drugs so they are smuggled into both countries (Beeghley, 2003, p130). As a result there is an illegal market to satisfy the high demand (Beeghley, 2003, p130). These markets will usually be located in poor neighbourhoods because they provide quick cash to those for whom middle class values and laws have offered few other opportunities (Beeghley, 2003, p130). Because they are illegal they generate crime and violence for two main reasons:

1). Addicts may have to commit crime e.g. armed burglary for money to buy drugs (Beeghley, 2003, p130) 2). Rival gangs and rival dealers cause gun violence as they fight to gain control of territory. They use guns for protection and to scare off rivals. (Beeghley, 2003, p134)

The increase in the 1990's in gun crime primarily involved young males, especially black males, occurred first in the big cities, and was related to the sudden appearance of crack cocaine in the drug markets of the big cities around 1985 (Blumstein & Wallman, 2000, p505).Over the fifteen years prior to cracks appearance on the streets there was a massive restructuring of the US economy and many well paid manufacturing jobs moved out of the big cities to places where they could find cheaper labour. This left many African Americas and Hispanics with few opportunities to earn a decent living. Selling crack paid people more than double the minimum wage (Beeghly, 2003, p131). Beeghly tells us that in a study of 27 cities it is estimated the emergence of crack cocaine led to a 9% increase in gun related homicide (p131, 2003).

Drugs have become an important part of the informal labour economy in racially segregated communities where there are few other opportunities to earn money (Beeghly, 2003, p131). In the early 1980’s drug arrest rates for white youths declined by 33% but for black people it stayed the same (Canada, 1995, p130).

UK

The evidence seems to suggest that gun crime is actually a symptom of the growing and well established drugs market now in the United Kingdom which was heavily influenced by yardie gangsters. Even Tony Blair agrees that something needs to be done about the drug market in the UK. “We need to introduce tougher laws that make it harder for these people to operate, because much of the gun-crime is associated with drugs, illegal people-trafficking and organised crime” (Blair, 2006, cited in Nottingham Evening Post). Detectives say that the growing gun culture in England is being driven by the drugs trade (Gould, 2002). “They start shoplifting at the age of 10, graduate to street robbery and drug dealing in their teens, and use guns for extortion and getting rid of rival drug dealers in their early twenties” (Palmer, 2005).

The British Crime Survey 2004/05 supports this as it found victims believed offenders to be under the influence of drugs in just under one in five (18%) of incidents of violence - no change compared with 2003/04 (19%).

Bristol
In Bristol an initiative not unlike trident has been set up to deal with the increase in drugs and drug related crime in the Avon and Somerset area called Atrium. Atrium was set up in 2001 to tackle the emerging class A drug market. Bristol's inner city was becoming the regions drug supply capital. A number of group's were deliberately targeting Bristol for the supply and distribution of drugs in particular crack cocaine. Crack and class A drugs in general are linked to major crime and the drug dealers operating in Atriums areas have links to violent crime and gun crime (Bristol Evening Post, 2006). Atriums main aim is to disrupt and deter these criminal organisations. Their most important way of obtaining information is like trident the public and communities.

Other Aims & Achievments:

• Reduce the volume of crime
• Reduce serious and major crime
• Improve reassurance among communities
• The total number of people arrested in Atrium now stands at 1,537
• In the last two years, officers working for Atrium have seized more than Ł2 million worth of class A drugs at street value.
• In the last two years Atrium has seized Ł700,000 worth of class C drugs like cannabis.
• Since April 2005, they have seized more than Ł100,000 in cash from drug dealers, to add to the 20,000 firearms taken off the streets since 2001.

Gender

In both the USA and the UK men show more interest in guns than females and are more in favour of gun controls in fact males are 3 times as likely as females to report possessing a gun (Bureau of Justice Statistics, 2006). Braithwaite (1989) suggests that crime in general is actually committed disproportionately by men (Cited in Walklate, 2001, p1). Smith and Uchida (1988) did a study in which they found guns to sometimes be symbols of virility and power which is why men show a greater interest in guns. At a time when men are feeling most insecure perhaps owning a gun reaffirms their masculinity. Men are more likely to be members of pro gun groups in both the USA and the UK. ‘’The highly educated are more likely to oppose concealed handgun laws, while gun owners are likely to be more supportive and women and older individuals less supportive’’ (Markel, Joslyn & Mark, 2001 p524).

USA

Most studies show fear of crime and gun ownership are directly linked, they suggest for women fear is the main factor associated with gun ownership and that this explains why, as the media has suggested there has been a rise in female gun ownership. However Sheley et al's study in 1994 on Women and handguns found that in fact the proportion of men and women owning guns throughout the 1980's -1990's remained constant and that women's fear of crime and gun ownership is no more closely linked than men's. "Even among handgun owners, the principal stated reason for ownership splits roughly evenly between self-defence and recreation" (Wight 1984 cited in Sheley et al, 1994, p222).

They suggest that in fact it is the media along with gun companies that have constructed a rise in female gun ownership. For example the NRA has a slogan “A handgun is a women’s best friend” to recruit women members. Also Smith and Wesson now market firearms and related paraphernalia designed especially for women. (Maines, 1992 cited in Sheley et al, 1994, p220).

• Wilson & Herrnstein (1985) found that in 1977 looking at arrest rates in the USA men are most predominant in among other things possession of weapons. (Cited in Walklate, 2001, p5).
• Criminal victimisation surveys conducted in the United States since the late 1960’s have found that men are not only most often the perpetrators but also the victims of crime especially violent crime (Walklate, 2001, p8).
• USA Males are 5 times more likely to be the victims of a homicide than females (Bureau of Justice Statistics, 2006).
• Women in the South like men in the South are more likely to own guns (Sheley et al, 1994, p223).

UK

In the UK there have been very few studies into women and gun ownership and I believe this is because in England very few women own guns. Because handguns are banned in England legal gun ownership will usually be guns for sporting use and these sports are more often than not male dominated. Guns provide an immediate extension of ones own power which has as I have discussed above led to a growing illegal gun culture, this is also most often linked with males.

Guns are appealing to men in particular who feel that their masculinity is under threat or needs to be proven. This is evident in the growing gang culture, for these men guns are actual and symbolic power.

• 1992 British crime survey – 53% of victims of street crime were young males (Walklate, 2001, p8).
• 1998 British crime survey reported 6.1% of adult men and 3.6% of adult women had been the victim of at least one violent crime in 1997 (Walklate, 2001, p8)
• Women make up only 5% of prison population (Home Office Statistics, 2000)
• BCS Survey 2004/05 found men are more likely to experience stranger violence – 4.5% of violence against men and 19% against women.
• BCS Survey 2004/05 Young men are most at risk aged 16-24 – 14.69% of them experienced violent crime.
• UK 8 in 10 male homicide victims are murdered with a gun compared with 6 in 10 females (Bureau of Justice, 2006)